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Various types of Materials used in Construction

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Introduction

The process and art of construction is an elaborate swerve between architect, engineering, and matarial selection. However, one of the most important decisions related to a construction project is to select the appropriate materials because that directly determines the longevity, efficacy, and utility of the structure. In this blog, we will examine the wide range of materials used in construction – from the classic to the modern, the unique features of each substance, the various roles they play in the built environment, as well as their properties.

 
Illustration of construction materials on a white background, including sand, cement, aggregate, stones, bricks, timber, aluminum, steel, tiles, iron, red clay pieces. Each item is labeled.

Materials of Construction

Builders use various materials to construct buildings, bridges, roads, retaining walls, and dams. This section presents the common construction materials used.

  1. Stones
  2. Bricks
  3. Sand
  4. Reinforcing steel
  5. Cement
  6. Plain cement concrete (PCC)
  7. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
  8. Prestressed concrete (PSC)
  9. Precast concrete

This section introduces smart materials and discusses the need to recycle materials.

Stone

Stone naturally occurs as a building material and people have used it since the early age of civilization. They cut rocks into the required size and shape and use them as building blocks. Builders have used stone to construct everything from small residential buildings to large palaces, forts, temples, and monuments. Famous stone buildings include Rashtrapathi Bhavan, Jaipur Palace, Red Fort, Birla Mandirs in Delhi, Banaras, and Hyderabad, Taj Mahal, Gateway of India, and India Gate.

Requirements of Good Building Stones

The following are the requirements of good building stones:
  1. Strength: The stone should be able to resist the load coming on it. Ordinarilly this is not of primary concern since all stones are having good strength. However in case of large structure, it may be necessary to check the strength.
  2. Durability: Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces like wind, rain and heat.
  3. Hardness: The stone used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by movement of men and materials over them.
  4. Toughness: Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations. The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads moving over them. The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough.
  5. Specific Gravity: Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbours. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.
  6. Porosity and Absorption: Building stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain water enters into the pour and reacts with stone and crumbles it. In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place and it results into the disintegration of the stone.
  7. Dressing: Shaping the stone as required is called dressing. The stone should allow easy dressing to reduce the overall cost. However, the engineer must ensure that ease of dressing does not compromise the required strength and durability.
  8. Appearance: When using stones for face work, prioritize appearance. Choose stones with a suitable color and good polishability to enhance visual appeal.
  9. Seasoning: Builders should allow good stones to lose their quarry sap before use. For example, they should not use laterite stones for 6 to 12 months after quarrying. During this period, natural exposure removes the quarry sap. This process is called seasoning.
  10. Cost: Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of the quarry to building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones comes down.
However, no single stone satisfies all the requirements of good building material, since one property often contradicts another. For example, the need for strength and durability often conflicts with the need for ease of dressing. Therefore, the site engineer must examine the specific properties required for the intended work and select the appropriate stone accordingly.

Bricks

Manufacturers obtain bricks by molding good clay into blocks, drying them, and then burning them. Builders have used bricks as a building block for a long time, replacing stone. Initially, workers molded bricks by hand, sun-dried them, and burned them in clamps. Technological advancements improved brick-making through better understanding of raw materials, improved machinery, and enhanced techniques for handling, drying, and burning. Builders need high-quality bricks to construct sturdy and strong buildings. To ensure a building remains stable and durable, using excellent bricks is essential. A quality building brick must meet the following requirements:

Requirements of Good Building bricks

  1. High Compressive Strength: The brick creates used in the constructions of housing units should have high compressive resistance to the endure the load carrying specifications of a structure. The corresponding compressive strength is a material’s resistance to crush under vertical load conditions.
  2. Low Water Absorption: The brickwork must have its water absorption reduced immensely in order to prevent them from disintegrating in the face of moisture. An undesired growth of water leads to efflorescence, freeze- thaw damage, and diminished strength.
  3. Uniform Size and Shape: Regularity in size and shape is necessary for the work of production. The use of uniform bricks will make the alignment of the project straighter and thereby easier, thus presenting appearance in an aesthetic way while building a structurally sound entity.
  4. Hardness and Durability: Bricks are supposed to be both hard as well as tough and durable enough to cope with wear and tear appearing over time. Their ability to resist abrasion and weathering is partly attributable to the bricks hardness.
  5. Sound Insulation: Ideally, good building bricks should offer appropriate soundproofing to help reduce sound transmission from one part of the building to another. This is particularly true for the residential and business purpose built premises.
  6. Thermal Insulation: Insulating bricks help in maintaining the indoor temperature as well as reducing the energy consumption of the building. It matters both for comfortable and energy efficiency.
  7. Fire Resistance: Bricks have the capacity to withstand a fire which is very important to the safety of the person who stays in the building. By using fire-resistant bricks, a fire could be confined, and further spread of the fire may be prevented.
  8. Low Efflorescence: It is often observed in structural masonry, efflorescence refers to the formation of white powdery material on the surface of brick caused by the migration of soluble salts. Bricks are deemed to be good if the level of efflorescence is low so as the look of the bricks remains the same and it can withstand the external forces.
  9. Color and Texture: Although unrelated to structural properties, color and texture of bricks contribute to overall aesthetic values brought by a structure.The construction has an appealing texture and uniform color that add to its visual appeal.
Builders must consider all these factors when choosing building bricks to ensure the construction of secure, long-lasting, and attractive structures. They can confirm the quality of the bricks by conducting proper tests and following applicable standards before starting any construction project.

Sand

Builders use sand as a base course under flooring tiles to create a level surface. In construction, workers mainly use sand as an inert material in mortar and concrete. Sand comes naturally from sources like rivers (river sand), small streams (nalla sand), and pits (pit sand). Builders avoid using sea sand for making mortar and concrete for the following reasons:

  1. It contains salt and hence structure remains damp. The mortar is affected by efflorescence and then blisters appear.
  2. It contains shells and organic matter, which decompose after some time and reduce the strength and life of mortar and concrete.

Workers can also obtain sand artificially by crushing stones. When they crush stones to produce coarse aggregates, the crushed stones produce artificial sand as a by-product. The fine particles from crushed stones form artificial sand used in construction activities. Builders commonly use artificial sand in constructing dams and bridges. For many construction purposes, especially mortar and concrete mixtures, using high-quality building sand matters a lot. The properties of high-quality building sand improve the strength, workability, and durability of materials. These properties define high-quality building sand.

Requirements of Good Building sand

  1. Gradation: The sand grains should be from well graded type as this is a mixture of different sizes. As the workability of mortar and concrete is improved by having a well-graded formulation sand mix, providing sufficient large particles which is in good proportion to smaller particles.
  2. Particle Shape: The morphology of sand particles determines workability and strength in constructions. In the best case scenario the mix of sand should have angular or sub angular grains that give good interlocking and cohesion in this blend.
  3. Cleanliness: Over all, building sand should be free of contaminants–clay, silt, organic material, and other harmful impurities. Presence of impurities weakens the bonding nature of the mortar which can only cause problems with the strength of the construction.
  4. Silt Content: The presence of too much silt in sand makes the construction material less and poorly workable and loses strength. From a quality of the sand standpoint, low silt content is desirable.
  5. Clay Content: Same as in case of silt, high clay content from sand reduces the properties of mortar and concrete. Too much clay cause shrinkage, cracking and less durability.
  6. Moisture Content: It should be moist enough. The over moist mortar and concrete may be more difficult to achieve a required consistency, whereas aggravated dry sand may produce workability without.
  7. Consistency: The properties of good properly defined should remain uniform as from batch to batch. The consistency ensures predictable and reliable performance in construc- tion domains.
  8. Color: Though not a performance parameter, the color of the sand may be of consideration when exposed concrete or decorative applications in view.
  9. PH Level: To ensure that other materials employed during the process of construction do not react adversely with sand, it a suitable pH level should be maintained; such level should not be harmful.
Experts advise getting samples and running tests before buying building sand to ensure it meets the requirements for the specific construction application. Builders can guarantee using high-quality building sand in projects by consulting engineers and following local building codes.

Reinforcing steel

Steel forms as an alloy of ferrous metal and carbon, with carbon content ranging from 0.25% to 1.5%. Increasing the carbon content makes the steel harder. Builders mainly use steel bars with circular cross sections as reinforcement to strengthen concrete structures. Engineers classify reinforcing steel into three types:

  1. Mild steel
  2. High Yield Strength Deformed bars (HYSD)/TOR steel and
  3. High tensile steel.

While talking about to the durability and stability of reinforced concrete structures, high-quality reinforcing steel, or rebar, is important. The following requirements are necessary for high-quality reinforcing steel construction.

Requirements of Good Building reinforced steel

  1. High Strength: The tensile force that is applied to a structure will generate tensile stress and for reinforcing steel to remain useful, this reinforcing steel has to have high tensile strength. Standard Classes of reinforcing steel are Grade 60 and Grade 40, which translate to their minimum yield strength in ksi (thousands of psi).
  2. Ductility: Ductility is the capacity of reinforcing steel not to break when deforming. This factor is pivotal for redistributing stress across the body and avoiding brittle fracture within the direction of structures. The ductile rebar permits some stretching before yielding.
  3. Weldability: The connection of the different bars through forming forming a sturdy structure requires that the reinforce steel is weldable. In such dangerous structures as complex configurations, weldability is crucial.
  4. Bendability: Each piece of rebar should bend well with no cracks allowed. This feature is very important during construction proper arrangement during which bars have to be shaped to fit the particular design dictates of a structure.
  5. Corrosion Resistance: It is typically subjected to atmospheric influences containing moisture and hostile chemicals, thus inducing corrosion. The quality good rebar should have the corrosion-resistant coating or made of corrosion-resistant material to pass this factor in order to ensure long-yielding.
  6. Bond Strength: Only the links among reinforcing steel and surrounding concrete are of importance for transmission of forces. The rebar it should provide bond strength, sufficient to establish good co-operation between the two materials.
  7. Consistent Quality: Steady quality should be obtained from the process of manufacturing grade 35/45 and others including reinforced steel. This guarantees equal mechanical characteristics and dimensions which are critical for the predictability and credibility of the reinforced concrete structures.
  8. Identification Markings: Details such as the manufacturer’s identification, whether Grade 3 or above and any other matter pertinent should be clearly written with each bar. This assists in quality control, traceability and such ensuring compliance with the design requirements.
  9. Compliance with Standards: The specifications and industry standards that apply to reinforcing steel should be followed, such as those established by ASTM International or other national and international standards organizations.Making sure compliance confirms that the information fulfills established criteria for performance.
Engineers and contractors carefully choose reinforcing steel based on the specific requirements of a construction project. Routine testing and adherence to industry standards ensure the use of premium reinforcing steel in reinforced concrete structures.

Mild Steel

It contains carbon up to 0.23 to 0.25%. Engineers allow higher carbon content for bars with diameters of 20 mm and above. Manufacturers produce it in diameters of 6, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, and 32 mm. Its yield strength measures 250 N/mm², and its Young’s modulus equals 2 × 10⁵ N/mm². Builders commonly used this steel as reinforcement in concrete, but TOR steel now replaces it. Workers use it for window bars, grills, and steel gates.

HYSD Bars/TOR Steel

Two types of TOR steel bars come in the market: Fe-415 and Fe-500. The number in the designation shows the tensile strength of the bar in N/mm². The bars have ribbed deformations on their surfaces to improve the bond between concrete and steel. They come in diameters of 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28, and 32 mm. Engineers now prefer these bars over mild steel bars for reinforcement because they offer higher tensile strength and better bonding. Builders also use them as wind bars.

High Tensile Bars

Manufacturers make high tensile steel bars using 0.8% carbon and 0.6% manganese, along with small amounts of silicon, sulphur, and phosphorus. The process involves cold drawing and tempering the wires. They usually come in diameters of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 mm. Workers may bundle several bars together to form a strand. These bars have tensile strengths ranging from 1400 N/mm² to 1900 N/mm². Steel’s Young’s modulus remains the same as that of mild steel. Engineers use high tensile bars as reinforcement in prestressed concrete.

Cement

Manufacturers produce cement by calcining calcareous materials (like lime) and argillaceous materials (such as shale and clay), then grind the resulting clinker into a fine powder. Builders mainly use cement paste to fill small cracks and rely on cement as the primary binding material in mortar and concrete. To construct durable and stable buildings, engineers choose high-quality cement. The strength and durability of concrete depend largely on the properties of the cement. The following list outlines the fundamental requirements for high-quality building cement.

Requirements of Good Building cement

  1. Chemical Composition: Cement has a clearly defined chemical makeup which mainly includes calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron. The first and second aids comply with certain proportions to provide specific properties in concrete.
  2. Fineness: The particle-size-related fineness of cement particles is vital for the reactivity and hydration of the cement. The strength and workability of concrete are achieved because of the larger surface area provided by finer particles in the concrete mix.
  3. Setting Time: The cement should also have adjustable setting stage- the initial setting time and final setting time – to make sure that a long enough amount of time is provided for mixing, laying and finishing the final product. Various factors influence the setting time, for instance, temperature and type of cement.
  4. Strength Development: Cement that is good should through a high early strength targeted with time strength development. This maintains that the concrete attains the necessary strength for structural purpose.
  5. Soundness: Excessive hydration volume depends on accelerators or high-temperature setting that should be prevented during in the process of setting or hardening of cement. Soundness testing guarantees that the cement paste is stable and won’t cause cracking of the concrete due to shattering.
  6. Consistency: The homogeneous state of composition of cement is what is referred to as the consistency of cement. In construction, consistent quality is essential for valuably, the patterns of performance and easy to operate with.
  7. Heat of Hydration: There is an expectation that the amount of heat generated by the hydration process of cement should be within tolerable limits. Thermal cracking can be caused by high temperature and these cracks become persistent cracks which affect the long enduring strengths of this structure.
  8. Low Clinker Content: Cement of better quality usually exhibits lower clinker content. The reduction in clinker content can reduce the amount of carbon released during the production process thereby making the cement green.
  9. Color: Though the shade is not very important while the performance of the cement is concerned, it must remain uniform while opting for the product.This promises that the completed concrete will have an attractive look.
It is important to take these requirements and specifications into consideration when choosing cement for a building project. In order to be sure that cement performs constantly in concrete structures, quality control procedures, testing, and adherence to industry standards are essential.

Plain cement concrete (PCC)

Concrete workers create plain cement concrete by intimately mixing cement, sand, coarse aggregate (jelly), and water. They may also add small quantities of admixtures like air-entraining agents, waterproofing agents, or workability agents to give the concrete special properties. Builders use plain cement concrete for the following purposes:
  1. As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings and on walls below beams.
  2. As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.
  3. As coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.
  4. For flagging the area around the buildings.
  5. For making pavements.
  6. For making tennis courts, basket ball courts etc.

Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)

Concrete resists compressive stress well but handles tensile stress poorly. Therefore, engineers add reinforcement wherever tensile stress occurs. Steel makes the best reinforcing material because it has high tensile strength and bonds well with concrete. Since steel’s elastic modulus exceeds that of concrete, it develops high internal forces. Workers prepare a reinforcement cage according to design requirements, place it inside the formwork, and pour fresh concrete. After the concrete hardens, workers remove the formwork. The resulting composite material of steel and concrete, called R.C.C., acts as a structural member that efficiently resists both tensile and compressive forces.

Uses of R.C.C.

  1. R.C.C. is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is expected. The common structural elements in a building where R.C.C. is used are:
  • Footing
  • Columns
  • Beams, lintels
  • Chejjas, roof slabs
  • Stairs.

   2. R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like:

  • Water tanks
  • Dams
  • Silos, bunkers

   3. They are used for the construction of

  • Bridges
  • Retaining walls
  • Docks and harbours
  • Under water structures

   4. R.C.C. is used for building tall structures like

  • Multistorey buildings
  • Chimneys
  • Towers

   5. R.C.C. is used for paving

  • High ways
  • City roads
  • Airports

   6.R.C.C. is used in atomic plants to prevent radiation.

  • For this purpose R.C.C. walls built are as thick as 1.5 m to 2.0 m.

Pre-Stressed concrete (PSC)

In prestressed concrete, engineers introduce compressive stresses where tensile stresses will appear during use. For example, bridge girders experience tensile stress at the bottom when loads act on them. To counter this, workers apply compressive stress to the bottom before placing the girder. They achieve this by tensioning high-strength wires either before pouring concrete (pretensioning) or by stretching wires through ducts after casting (post-tensioning). According to ACI, prestressed concrete contains internal stresses that balance external loads. Builders commonly use it in various structural elements.

  1. Beams and girders
  2. Slabs and grid floors
  3. Pipes and tanks
  4. Poles, piles, sleepers and pavements
  5. Shell and folded plate roofs

Precast concrete

Builders construct concrete structures by casting them directly on-site. They set up formwork, pour the concrete, and remove the formwork after the concrete hardens. This method they call cast-in-situ construction. Workers cast concrete elements in factories or other locations, then transport those elements to the final site and call them precast elements.

Factories cast the elements under better controls, making them superior to cast-in-situ elements. However, transportation costs and ensuring proper connections on-site present challenges. Builders use precast concrete for the following applications:

  1. Pipes and tanks
  2. Poles, piles, sleepers and pavement
  3. Lintel beams
  4. Beams and girders
  5. Building blocks
  6. Wall panels
  7. Manhole covers

Conclusion

Choosing construction materials plays a essential role in determining a project’s lifespan, visual appeal, and functionality. Traditional materials like concrete, steel, and wood remain common, while innovative options such as FRPs and ICFs have entered the industry. Sustainability and innovation continue to drive change in construction. By selecting the right materials and applying sustainable practices, construction professionals create long-lasting, high-performance, and aesthetically pleasing structures that shape our world.

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